An Investigation into the Impact on Social Inclusion of High Volume Transport (HVT) Corridors and Potential Solutions to Identifying and Preventing Human Trafficking FINAL REPORT December 2022 HVT 035 – DT Global Emerging Markets UK Ltd This research was funded by UK aid through the UK Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office under the High Volume Transport (HVT) Applied Research Programme, managed by DT Global. The views expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the UK Government’s official policies. Reference No. HVT/035 Lead Organisation/ Consultant DT Global Emerging Markets UK Ltd (formerly Cardno Emerging Markets (UK) Ltd.) Partner Organisation(s)/ Consultant(s) Transaid, North Star Alliance, Scriptoria Ltd. Title An Investigation into the Impact on Social Inclusion of High Volume Transport (HVT) Corridors and Potential Solutions to Identifying and Preventing Human Trafficking Type of Document Project Report Theme Policy Regulation Sub-theme Disability, Gender, Road Safety Author(s) Cathy Green, Kim van der Weijde, Jacob Odhiambo, Sam Clark, Neil Rettie, Eva Mwai, Japheth Kioko Lead Contact Cathy Green Geographical Location(s) Uganda, Tanzania Abstract This is the final report of a research project that investigated the impact on social inclusion of High Volume Transport corridors and potential solutions to identifying and preventing human trafficking. Key project activities included a literature review and field research in four research sites in Tanzania and Uganda. A survey collected quantitative data from 1,548 vehicle operators (drivers, conductors and drivers’ assistants) and community members located along selected transport corridors. Qualitative interviews were carried out with transport associations, driver training schools, representatives of civil society organisations working to combat human trafficking, traffic police and border control officials. Key findings and policy implications were documented in project reports and a journal article. Two online webinars were held to disseminate key findings to policy makers, practitioners and researchers in Tanzania and Uganda. Other dissemination activities included presentations to Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office Advisers and the Women and Transport Conference in 2020 and 2021. Keywords Human trafficking; trafficking in persons; high volume transport corridors; HVT; social inclusion; Tanzania; Uganda Funding Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office, UK Acknowledgements We are very grateful to the government, civil society, and transport sector and private sector stakeholders who have shown such enthusiasm and support for this research. Particular thanks go to our research affiliates Mr Damon Wamara, Uganda Child Rights NGO Network and Mr Selemani Mbuyita, Senior Public Health Researcher, Tanzania. Our thanks also to the survey respondents who gave up their precious time and to the survivors of human trafficking who bravely shared their stories and made important recommendations for policy and practice. i FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING CONTENTS Executive Summary iv 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Project Aims and Objectives 1 1.3 Alignment with HVT Research Themes and Priorities 2 1.4 Alignment with FCDO Priorities 2 2. Approach and Methodology 3 2.1 Overview 3 2.2 Methodology 3 2.2.1 Literature Review 3 2.2.2 Primary Research 4 3. Findings 6 3.1 Literature Review 6 3.1.1 Scale of the Problem 6 3.1.2 Routes, Origins and Types of TIP 6 3.1.3 Anti-TIP Legislation 7 3.1.4 Role of Transport in TIP 7 3.1.5 Transport-related Anti-TIP Interventions 8 3.1.6 TIP and COVID-19 8 3.1.7 TIP in the Transport Literature 9 3.1.8 Summary 9 3.2 Primary Research 9 3.2.1 Knowledge of TIP 9 3.2.2 TIP Victims 11 3.2.3 TIP Trends Including Impact of COVID-19 11 3.2.4 Vehicles Involved in TIP 11 3.2.5 Locations Approached by Traffickers 12 3.2.6 Extent to which Vehicle Operators Organised 12 3.2.7 Vehicle Operators Ever Approached by a Trafficker 13 3.2.8 Understanding of Risk 13 3.2.9 Understanding of Victim Identification 14 3.2.10 Vehicle Checks at Borders 14 3.2.11 Role of Border Officials in TIP 15 3.2.12 Role of Traffic Police in TIP 16 3.2.13 TIP Training for Vehicle Operators 16 3.2.14 Perspectives of Driver Training Schools and Transport Associations 16 3.2.15 Survivor Experiences of TIP 17 4. Recommendations 19 4.1 Detailed Recommendations 19 4.2 Survivors’ Recommendations 21 5. Topics for Further Research 23 6. Research Application and Uptake 24 ii FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING 7. Conclusion 25 APPENDICES Appendix A: Key Research Questions 26 Appendix B: Summary of Results 27 TABLES Table 1: Research Sites in Tanzania and Uganda 4 Table 2: Survivors’ Recommendations on Actions to Combat TIP 21 Table 3: Key Research Questions 26 FIGURES Figure 1: Research Timeline and Phases 3 Figure 2: Location of Research Sites 4 Figure 3: Vehicle Operators’ Knowledge of TIP and Cases Observed 10 Figure 4: Community Members’ Knowledge of TIP and Cases Observed 10 Figure 5: Vehicle Operators who had Heard of TIP by Age 10 Figure 6: Community Members who had Heard of TIP by Age and Gender 11 Figure 7: Vehicle Operators’ Views on Vehicles Most Likely to be Involved in TIP 12 Figure 8: Vehicle Operator and Community Views on Whether Drivers Involved in TIP are Organised 12 Figure 9: Vehicle Operator and Community Views on Whether Drivers Involved in TIP are Organised 13 Figure 10: Vehicle Operator Perception of Risk Associated with Involvement in TIP, Uganda 13 Figure 11: Vehicle Operator Perception of Risk Associated with Involvement in TIP, Tanzania 14 Figure 12: Vehicle Operator Views on Frequency of Vehicle Checks by Border Officials, Tanzania 15 Figure 13: Vehicle Operator Views on Frequency of Vehicle Checks by Border Officials, Uganda 15 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS ATGWU Amalgamated Transport and General Workers’ Union (Uganda) COVID-19 Coronavirus Disease COSTECH Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology CSO Civil Society Organisation EAC East African Community FCDO Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office HGV Heavy Goods Vehicle HVT High Volume Transport ILO International Labour Organization MUREC Mildmay Uganda Research Ethics Committee NBS National Bureau of Statistics (Tanzania) SDG Sustainable Development Goal SSA Sub-Saharan Africa TAT Truckers Against Trafficking TIP Trafficking in Persons TSh Tanzania Shilling UNCST Uganda National Council for Science and Technology USh Ugandan Shilling i FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Background This report presents the activities, findings and implications for policy and practice of the research project entitled “An Investigation into the Impact on Social Inclusion of High Volume Transport (HVT) Corridors and Potential Solutions to Identifying and Preventing Human Trafficking”. The research was funded by UK Aid from the Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO) through the High Volume Transport (HVT) applied research programme (2017–2023) managed by DT Global (previously IMC Worldwide). The research aimed to increase understanding of the relationship between Trafficking in Persons (TIP) and longdistance transport corridors and cross-border posts in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), a topic on which little research has been carried out to date. The research focused on Uganda and Tanzania and was implemented over the period August 2020 to December 2022. Key activities included: a literature review; primary research carried out in four locations in Tanzania and Uganda; establishment of, and engagement with, a Research Strategy Reference Group whose government, civil society and private sector members helped to steer the research; a launch meeting and various dissemination events; compilation of an article for submission to a peer-reviewed journal; and drafting of a training manual on TIP for vehicle operators, which will be made available on an open access basis. Key Findings • Gaps in awareness of and exposure to TIP among the communities that border HVT corridors, especially in Tanzania; • A small but significant proportion of community members and vehicle operators approached by suspected traffickers; • The significance of transport vehicles and transport hubs as locations where TIP victims are seen; • Vehicle operators involved in TIP thought to be well organised and motivated by financial gain; • The existence of a cadre of possible “TIP repeat offenders” among vehicle operators; • A lack of consensus on how Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) affected the number of TIP victims and drivers’ motivations to be involved in TIP; • The very low level of information or training provision on TIP for vehicle operators; • The absence of a focus on TIP in the activities of transport associations and in driver training curricula; • The very low level of confidence in the anti-TIP role of regulatory officials. Key Recommendations • Major transport infrastructure projects should include investment in anti-TIP interventions; • Targeted anti-TIP campaigns are needed, especially in border communities and on buses. The voices of survivors, which reveal the human cost of TIP, should feature in these campaigns; • Vehicle operators require improved access to information and training on TIP; • CSOs working on TIP require more resources so that they can publicise the services and facilities that they provide. Vehicle operators need training on where these services are and how to refer suspected TIP cases to them; ii FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING • Regional discussions about introducing mandatory modules in driver training curricula are needed; • Anti-TIP activities should be a mandatory focus of transport associations; • Targeted strategies for reaching the informal transport sector are required (e.g. via ride-hailing apps); • Vehicle categories that appear to be consistently avoiding border checks (e.g. taxis and minibuses) should be targeted for spot checks by the authorities. Extra resources may be required to this end; • The implementation of anti-TIP laws needs to be strengthened so that the law acts as a strong deterrent; • Border control officials and traffic police need to become more visible and proactive in the fight against TIP. Training at all levels needs to be backed up by effective supervision and appropriate resourcing of roles; • A regional cross-border committee involving Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania could play an important role in monitoring TIP from a transport perspective. 1 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING 1. Introduction 1.1 Background Our research aimed to increase understanding of the relationship between human trafficking (hereinafter referred to as Trafficking in Persons, or TIP) and long-distance transport corridors and cross-border posts in subSaharan Africa (SSA), a topic on which little research has been carried out to date. The research focused on the relationship between TIP and High Volume Transport (HVT) roads (i.e. highways with traffic volumes of more than 300 vehicles per day).1 The research was funded by UK aid from the Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO) through the High Volume Transport (HVT) applied research programme (2017– 2023), which is managed by DT Global (previously IMC Worldwide). TIP is the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons for the purpose of exploitation using threats, force, deception, fraud or abuse of power over a vulnerable person.2 It can occur on a transnational or domestic basis and be carried out for a range of purposes including sexual exploitation, forced labour, organ removal, or recruitment of children for begging or as child soldiers. Global estimates of the number of victims are alarming: an estimated 23.6 million people were in some form of forced labour in the private economy3 in 2021. Of these, 6.3 million people – 78% female and 27% children – were in a situation of forced sexual exploitation. An estimated 14% of victims of forced labour are from Africa.4 The current high-level policy emphasis on transport as a key driver of economic growth means that it is an opportune time to examine the wider impact of transport corridors on vulnerable groups. Stories of human trafficking are frequently covered in the African media. However, there are considerable gaps in the literature on the unlawful trafficking of people on the continent and reliable statistics are often not readily available. As a result, there is often a wide variance between official TIP statistics on the number of cases and other estimates. The gap in the TIP evidence base extends to understanding the nature and scale of trafficking along transport corridors. Payments to drivers are thought to incentivise their involvement in TIP, but this issue has been neglected in the literature. Very little is known about which transport sector actors play a role in TIP; whether their involvement is intentional or unintentional, formalised or informal; and where these actors fit within the complex network of individuals and organisations that facilitate TIP. Our research set out to shed light on the severity of the problem in HVT areas, the demographics involved, the role that HVT stakeholders play in these activities, and opportunities to develop effective interventions and policy change to improve TIP awareness and identification and support of victims. 1.2 Project Aims and Objectives The aim of the research was to improve understanding of the relationship between TIP and HVT corridors in Tanzania and Uganda. The research objectives were: 1. To investigate the role played by HVT corridors in TIP in Uganda and Tanzania; 1 Parkman, C. (2014). High Volume Transport: rapid assessment of research gaps in road engineering and technical aspects. Report produced by TRL for Evidence on Demand. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a089aae5274a31e00001e8/EoD_HD107_Jan2014_Road_Research.pdf (date accessed 28/11/22). 2 UNODC (2000). United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto. United Nations. Available at: https://www.unodc.org/documents/middleeastandnorthafrica/organisedcrime/UNITED_NATIONS_CONVENTION_AGAINST_TRANSNATIONAL_ORGANIZED_CRIME_AND_THE_PROTOCOLS_THER ETO.pdf (date accessed 28/11/22). 3 This estimate does not include forms of state-sponsored forced labour. 4 ILO, Walk Free and IOM (2022). Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage. International Labour Organization, Geneva. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forcedlabour/publications/WCMS_854733/lang--en/index.htm (date accessed 28/11/2022). 2 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING 2. To explore some of the factors (primarily transport-related and regulatory) that are contributing to TIP along HVT corridors; 3. To assess the level of awareness of TIP and its impacts among transport providers, the users of HVT corridors and the communities through which these routes pass; 4. To identify and recommend pilot intervention(s) that can help recognise and counter TIP along HVT corridors. Because the research was conceptualised and implemented during the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) pandemic, the relationship between COVID-19 and TIP along transport corridors was an additional topic of enquiry. The research objectives generated a number of detailed research questions (see Appendix 1). 1.3 Alignment with HVT Research Themes and Priorities The overarching goal of the HVT research programme is to increase access to affordable transport services, more efficient trade routes, and safer, low-carbon transport in low-income countries in Africa and South Asia. Part 1 of the programme aimed to establish the state of knowledge in four key areas: • Long-distance strategic road and rail transport; • Urban transport; • Low-carbon transport; • Gender, inclusion, vulnerable groups and road safety. Part 2 (2019–2023), which is ongoing, aims to generate new primary research, with an emphasis on inclusive transport and climate change mitigation and adaptation. Our research was implemented under Part 2 of the HVT research programme. It fell under the “policy regulation” priority area, focused on long-distance strategic road transport, and addressed issues of inclusion by focusing on a vulnerable group – individuals who are trafficked along major transport routes. 1.4 Alignment with FCDO Priorities Our research aligned with FCDO’s priority of ensuring that transport plays a critical role in supporting lowincome countries to reach their Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by seeking innovative ways to make transport safer, greener, more affordable, accessible and inclusive. Through policy changes that may arise from the findings and recommendations in this report, FCDO will be fulfilling its priority of helping the world’s most vulnerable. 3 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING 2. Approach and Methodology 2.1 Overview Our investigation into TIP along HVT corridors was undertaken as applied research – research that aims to find solutions to everyday problems. The duration of the research project was 29 months, beginning in August 2020 and ending in December 2022. The research was designed to be implemented in five phases: inception (eight weeks); research preparation (three months); primary research (nine months); design and implementation of a pilot intervention (six months); and uptake and embedment (three months) (Figure 1). Based on guidance from FCDO, a break was incorporated into the project timeline after Phase 3, following completion of the primary research. Phase 4 (design and implementation of a pilot intervention) was subsequently cancelled as a result of FCDO budget cuts. In addition, the scope of activities in Phase 5 was reduced. Phase 1 outputs included a launch event and preparation of an inception report. The main outputs of Phase 2 were a literature review and a research protocol. In addition, ethical approval applications were submitted to four institutions: in Tanzania, the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) and Tanzania Commission for Science & Technology (COSTECH) and in Uganda, Mildmay Uganda Research Ethics Committee (MUREC) and Uganda National Council for Science and Technology (UNCST). In Phase 3 training was provided to the research teams in Tanzania and Uganda, the research was implemented and a fieldwork report produced. Outputs from Phase 5 were a dissemination webinar, journal article and final report. A Research Strategy Reference Group (RSRG) comprising key transport and TIP stakeholders from government, civil society and the private sector was formed to guide the research design and to draw out policy implications from the research findings. Figure 1: Research Timeline and Phases 2.2 Methodology 2.2.1 Literature Review In Phase 2 (research implementation) a document search was undertaken and the core principles of a systematic literature review process were applied. Evidence relating to the study’s research questions was located through a database search of academic literature using keywords. EBSCOhost and JSTOR were the two main platforms used for the literature search. The PubMed database was also utilised to identify niche contextual information on the health effects of TIP, the role of the health sector in victim identification etc. Other search engines were also used, including Google Scholar and Google. The search also included policy documents, legislation and grey literature, some sourced from the transport sector and stakeholders working to combat TIP. Due to a lack of material identified during the initial search, the search parameters were expanded from the two research countries to include host, destination and transit 4 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING countries for TIP at an early stage of the review. Of 127 documents identified as relevant to the research countries, only 31 directly addressed the relationship between TIP and transport and very few of these addressed the topic substantively. A level of evidence classification system was formulated and applied to assess the extent to which the identified documents offered reliable evidence. Further information on the literature review methodology can be found in the literature review report (available at https://tinyurl.com/mrx5fh47). 2.2.2 Primary Research Informed by the findings of the literature review, a protocol was developed for the primary research (i.e. Phase 3). Four research sites were identified: three (Busia and Malaba in Uganda and Tunduma in Tanzania) were at border posts along HVT corridors; the fourth (Arusha in Tanzania) was at a key transit location (Table 1 and Figure 2). Table 1: Research Sites in Tanzania and Uganda Country Sites Borders Transport Corridor Tanzania Arusha Kenya Northern Corridor Tunduma Zambia Dar es Salaam Corridor Uganda Busia Kenya Arusha – Namanga – Athi River Trunk Road Malaba Kenya Northern Corridor Figure 2: Location of Research Sites The research study utilised both quantitative and qualitative designs. Cochran’s formula was used to determine a sample size of 384 respondents for each research site (total sample n=1,536). This formula is suitable because it yields a representative sample from proportions of large samples or populations from which it may be difficult to develop an accurate sampling frame. The final sample was 1,548 respondents, which exceeded the target number of respondents by 12. The two respondent categories were vehicle operators (i.e. drivers, conductors and turnboys, or drivers’ assistants) (sample n=780) who operated buses, coaches, heavy goods vehicles (HGVs), minibuses, taxis(i.e. car 5 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING and motorcycle/tricycle taxis) and community members living along the transport corridors (sample n=769). The survey questions covered: knowledge of and attitudes towards TIP; respondents’ views on the scale of TIP and trends, including the impact of COVID-19; whether they had been approached by a suspected trafficker; understanding of risk and sanctions; knowledge of victim identification and support; and the role played by traffic police and border officials in tackling TIP. The survey tools were translated into Kiswahili in Tanzania with an English-language version being used in Uganda. The qualitative component focused on five types of respondent: traffic police officers; border officials (interviewed in Uganda only); representatives of driver training schools and transport associations; civil society organisations (CSOs); and survivors of TIP. Key informants (n=55) were identified using purposive5 and snowball sampling6 techniques. The interviews were conducted in English in Uganda and Kiswahili in Tanzania and covered similar topics to the survey. The interviews with survivors were designed so that they could share their personal observations and experiences of TIP and make recommendations for policy makers. The primary research was carried out from February to September 2021. All participants in the research were informed of their rights prior to being asked to sign a research consent form, which included a right to privacy and confidentiality. 7 Interviews with survivors of TIP were arranged with the assistance of CSOs working on TIP and pro bono psychosocial support was offered if required. All survey questionnaires used unique identifiers to ensure the privacy and anonymity of respondents. In Uganda, ethical approval for the research protocol was obtained from the Mildmay Uganda Research Ethics Committee and research clearance was obtained through the Uganda National Council for Science and Technology. In Tanzania, ethical approval was granted by the National Bureau of Statistics and the Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology. The timeline for obtaining ethical approval was six months – three months longer than expected. The delay was mainly due to COVID-19-related disruptions to the activities of these organisations. Due to the sensitivity of the research subject, the research team was provided with an extended training that included an introduction to TIP, a focus on research ethics, safeguarding and working safely in the context of COVID-19, in addition to a focus on data collection tools and data management. The survey tools were tested in a two-day pilot and adapted in response to feedback. Quantitative data were collected by Research Assistants over a two-week period under the leadership of a Research Supervisor who quality assured the completed survey questionnaires prior to data entry. The quantitative data were analysed using scientific data analysis tools, specifically the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and STATA (statistical analysis software). Cross-tabulation was used to analyse the data. Several statistical tests were carried out, including descriptive analysis and univariate, bivariate and multivariate tests of associations. Thematic analysis was used to interpret the qualitative data. 5 Respondent groups were purposefully selected because they had characteristics that were of interest to the survey sample. 6 Snowball sampling involves new respondents recruited by other respondents to form part of the sample. 7 For detailed information on the research ethics that were applied to this study see the detailed Fieldwork Report which was an output of this study at: https://tinyurl.com/2w2ueva7. 6 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING 3. Findings 3.1 Literature Review The literature review identified useful contextual information on the scale of TIP, the routes used by traffickers, and the anti-TIP legislation in Tanzania and Uganda. However, very few of the identified documents explicitly or substantively focused on the transportation aspects of TIP. When a level of evidence classification system was applied, most of the retrieved documents were at the lower end of the reliability scale. 3.1.1 Scale of the Problem TIP is endemic in Africa due to high poverty levels, lack of employment opportunities, economic instability, poor governance, conflict and a growing demand for cheap labour.8 The African continent has 109 international boundaries totalling 45,000 kilometres. Inadequate border control means that many borders are highly porous.9 This enables various forms of criminal activity, including TIP. In 2018, an estimated 336,000 and 304,000 people fell victim to trafficking in Tanzania and Uganda, respectively. 10 However, the scale of TIP is contested in both countries. Official statistics on the number of TIP victims are much lower than other estimates: in Tanzania and Uganda, respectively, 16111 and 45512 victims were reported in 2019. Some cases of TIP are miscategorised in official records (e.g. cases of child trafficking for prostitution may be recorded as sexual abuse) but many happen out of sight of the regulatory authorities and are not recorded. 3.1.2 Routes, Origins and Types of TIP Tanzania’s links to European, Middle Eastern, South Asian, southern African and Kenyan markets, plus weaknesses in its security infrastructure, have made it a significant and dynamic hub for TIP. Tanzania also provides a transit route for Sudanese, Somalians and Ethiopians, who are trafficked south through Kenya towards South Africa. While many migrants using this route are willingly smuggled over borders, many others become victims of TIP. Cross-border trafficking is thought to be widespread. The porous border between Tanzania and Kenya is a problem, particularly around the Kilimanjaro, Arusha and Tanga regions, where there are many unstaffed border posts. Domestic trafficking is also an issue in Tanzania, with large numbers of children being trafficked from rural areas to urban centres. The demand for child commercial sex workers is said to be increasing, especially in major cities, including Dar es Salaam and Arusha.13 In Uganda, most transnational victims of TIP are said to originate from Kampala and its surrounding areas. Common destinations are Saudi Arabia, Oman, the United Arab Emirates and Kenya, with many victims recruited as domestic servants. Many victims of domestic trafficking within Uganda originate from Karamoja region in the north-east and Busoga sub-region in the east. Soroti and Katawaki Districts in northern and eastern 8 Bello, P. O. and Olutola, A. A. (2020). The conundrum of human trafficking in Africa. Available at: https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/the-conundrum-of-human-trafficking-in-africa (date accessed 20/08/20). 9 Okunade, S. K. and Ogunnubi, O. (2019). The African Union protocol on free movement: a panacea to end border porosity? Journal of African Union Studies 8 (1): 73-91. 10 Walk Free Foundation (2018). The Global Slavery Index 2018: Africa Region report. Perth, Australia. Available at: https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/resources/downloads (date accessed 28/11/22). 11 US Department of State (2020). Trafficking in Persons Report. 20th edition. Available at https://www.state.gov/wpcontent/uploads/2020/06/2020-TIP-Report-Complete-062420-FINAL.pdf (date accessed 28/11/22). 12 Uganda Police (2019). Annual Crime Report 2019. Available at: https://www.upf.go.ug/wpcontent/uploads/2020/04/Annual-Crime-Report-2019-Public.pdf?x45801 (date accessed 28/11/22). 13 ECPAT (2013). Global monitoring status of action against commercial sexual exploitation of children, Tanzania. Available at: https://ecpat.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/a4a_v2_af_tanzania_4.pdf (date accessed 28/11/22). 7 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING Uganda, respectively, are also known to be a source of TIP due to high levels of poverty, lack of education, and regular natural disasters such as floods and droughts. Children from these districts are reportedly trafficked to Kampala for labour and forced marriage, and further afield to Tanzania, Kenya and Sudan.14 3.1.3 Anti-TIP Legislation Tanzania and Uganda are both signatories to the 2000 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (known as the Palermo Protocol), one of the most influential pieces of anti-TIP legislation internationally. This legislation has important implications for transport companies and vehicle operators. Signatories are required to understand the role of transport and transport operators in TIP, and are expected to put in place measures to prevent transport operated by commercial carriers from being used in TIP. The onus is on transportation companies to ensure that their staff check passengers’ travel documentation. The implication is that vehicle operators require the skills and capacity to determine whether travel documentation is complete and authentic. Both countries also have domestic anti-TIP legislation. Tanzania’s 2008 Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act is its principal piece of legislation addressing TIP. An individual convicted of TIP (which includes the transportation of a victim) is liable to a fine of between 5,000,000 TSh (approximately £1,800) and 100,000,000 TSh (approximately £36,000) or to imprisonment of between two and ten years, or both. There is scope to prosecute offenders even in instances where “consent” has been given by the victim. In Uganda, the 2009 Prevention of Trafficking in Persons Act is its principal piece of legislation addressing TIP. Transportation of a trafficked person is highlighted as an offence. Those convicted can be imprisoned for up to 15 years. Legal entities (i.e. companies) convicted of TIP can be fined 20,000,000 USh (approximately £4,500). Upon conviction, an individual is liable to a maximum fine of 2,400,000 USh (approximately £540) or to imprisonment for five years, or both. Subsequent convictions attract a seven-year sentence without the option of a fine. In practice, despite this legislative backdrop, TIP conviction rates are low in both Tanzania and Uganda and progress in operationalising anti-TIP legislation has been slow. 3.1.4 Role of Transport in TIP The literature review identified very few resources that focused on the transportation phase of TIP, or on the role of vehicle operators as facilitators of TIP. The disproportionate focus on crime and punishment in the TIP literature may be a reason why less attention is paid to the “transit” part of the trafficking process. Key findings were: • When transport was mentioned, it was generally in relation to modes of transport used by TIP victims and was usually discussed alongside a focus on trafficking routes. Most of this material lacked detail; • In discussions about modes of transport, long-distance public service vehicle operators and truckers were sometimes mentioned. Private vehicle operators (e.g. drivers of motorcycle taxis, pick-up trucks and other private hire vehicles) were mentioned more frequently; • Most of the literature was vague on who plays a role in the networks of traffickers. More attention was paid to employment agencies, crime syndicates and a generalised notion of “recruiters” rather than vehicle operators per se; • Vehicle operators are thought to create demand for TIP by using the services of trafficked commercial sex workers; 14 ASF (2010). Baseline survey report: child trafficking in Soroti, Katakwi and Kampala Districts. Uganda. Available at: https://issuu.com/avocatssansfrontieres/docs/asf_uganda_childtrafficking_baselinesurvey (date accessed 28/11/22). 8 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING • There were hints in the literature that not all transport is organised by traffickers; sometimes TIP victims are expected to make their own way to a destination. This suggests that training in victim identification for vehicle operators may be important; • The transit phase of trafficking was reported as the point when many victims become aware of their predicament and may start to suffer physical, mental or sexual abuse. Intervention at this stage is therefore crucial; • Some victims of TIP may be unaware that they are being trafficked – or are about to be trafficked – during their journey. Because the role of transport companies and vehicle operators in TIP is under-explored in the literature, there is not yet a strong call to work with the transport sector to combat TIP. 3.1.5 Transport-related Anti-TIP Interventions The literature review identified very few documented examples of anti-TIP interventions implemented by the transport sector in Africa. In one news article, the International Labour Organization (ILO) describes how the Road Transport Union of Burkina Faso is working with the ILO to combat TIP by raising awareness among bus drivers.15 This is a rare example of an African initiative that specifically targets the transport sector as part of a strategy to combat TIP. In contrast, there are quite a few examples of initiatives that have been implemented in the United States. For example, the Truckers against Trafficking (TAT) initiative, which began in 2009, focuses on teaching truck drivers about the impact of TIP, and especially sex trafficking. Industry training programmes are offered and the organisation has developed many resources for the trucking and bus industries. The training focuses on drivers, trucking schools, the truck stop industry and trucking associations. TAT provides an online training facility for truckers, who can qualify as a Certified Trucker Against Trafficking. The Busing on the Lookout programme has expanded the training to school bus drivers. As of 2020, 97,000 school bus drivers and 943,400 truckers had received TAT training.16 3.1.6 TIP and COVID-19 In 2020 and 2021, the COVID-19 pandemic imposed unprecedented restrictions on trade, transport and the movement of people across SSA. There were predictions that this would result in increased vulnerability to TIP due to job losses, economic pressures, a decline in working conditions, travel bans or situations where individuals were stranded across international borders. 17,18,19 The restrictions on movement of HGVs, including delays at border control, discrimination due to positive COVID-19 tests, increased security threats, and lack of access to essential services were a further cause for concern.20 These conditions were considered risk factors 15 ILO (2017). Burkina Faso: a new life for trafficked children. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/multimedia/video/video-news-releases/WCMS_082569/lang--en/index.htm (date accessed 28/11/22). 16 See: https://truckersagainsttrafficking.org (date accessed 28/11/22). 17 Anti-Slavery (2020). Leaving no-one behind: guidance for policymakers, donors and business leaders to ensure that responses to COVID-19 reach victims of modern slavery and people vulnerable to slavery. Anti-Slavery. Available at: https://www.antislavery.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/ASI_Leaving-noone-behind-April-2020-1.pdf (date accessed 28/11/22). 18 Giammarinaro, M. G. (2020). COVID-19 position paper. The impact and consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on trafficked and exploited persons. Special Rapporteur on trafficking in persons, especially women and children. Updated 8 June 2020. Available at: https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Trafficking/COVID-19-Impact-trafficking.pdf (date accessed 28/11/22). 19 Walk Free Foundation (2020). Protecting people in a pandemic. Minderoo Foundation. Available at: https://www.walkfree.org/reports/protecting-people-in-a-pandemic/(date accessed 28/11/22). 20 The Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (2020). New challenges for truck drivers in East Africa during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport. Available at: 9 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING for vehicle operators looking for ways to generate supplementary income. There were also concerns that crime syndicates could use the cover of COVID-19 to boost their activities, as has been observed during previous outbreaks of disease. 21 3.1.7 TIP in the Transport Literature From 2007 to 2019, 13,000 kilometres of regional highways, on 17 road corridors, were built in Africa with US$8 billion in funding from the African Development Bank. Over the same period, 26 One-Stop Border Posts were built to facilitate the movement of goods and people.22 Substantial investments in Africa’s transport infrastructure are therefore being made at a time when TIP is increasing on the continent. Yet few transport sector documents consider TIP to be among the potential negative externalities of transport infrastructure projects. A 2018 meta-analysis of 234 estimated impacts from 78 studies of transport infrastructure projects identified positive economic welfare and equity impacts, but negative impacts for social inclusion. TIP was not specifically highlighted as a negative externality of transport corridors. 23 3.1.8 Summary Overall, the literature review identified very few relevant resources and, in most cases, transport was not the primary focus of the papers identified. In terms of TIP legislation, some laws do mention transport and transport actors, including the Palermo Protocol. However, these provisions have not yet inspired new anti-trafficking research or influenced anti-TIP implementation activities. The disproportionate emphasis placed by affected countries on improving law enforcement and criminal justice responses, as opposed to addressing prevention, appears to have shifted attention from the role of the transport sector in helping to combat TIP. The transport literature is largely silent on the issue of TIP. 3.2 Primary Research The following section highlights the key findings of the primary research. Detailed results, including data broken down by the four research sites, can be found in the fieldwork report. A summary of results can be found in Appendix B. 3.2.1 Knowledge of TIP In both Tanzania and Uganda, the majority of vehicle operators had heard of TIP and almost two thirds had seen cases of TIP. A small but significant proportion reported seeing many victims (14% in Tanzania; 21% in Uganda). In Tanzania, vehicle operators had been more exposed to TIP than community members whereas in Uganda, exposure levels were similar among the two groups of respondents (Figure 3 and Figure 4). https://www.ciltinternational.org/analysis-events/new-challenges-for-truck-drivers-in-east-africa-during-the-covid-19- pandemic/?utm_source=Branch+Key+Contacts&utm_campaign=5af79eaf17- EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2020_04_01_01_36_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_b8449ede5e-5af79eaf17- 330998981 (date accessed 28/11/22). 21 Worsnop, C. (2019). The disease outbreak-human trafficking connection: a missed opportunity. Health Security 17 (3): 181-192. Available at: https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/hs.2018.0134 (date accessed 28/11/22). 22 African Development Bank (2019). Cross-border road corridors. The quest to integrate Africa. Available at: https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/Cross-border_road_corridors.pdf (date accessed 28/11/22). 23 Roberts, M., Melecky, M., Bougna, T. and Xu, Y. S. (2018). Transport corridors and their wider economic benefits: a critical review of the literature. Policy Research Working Paper No. 8302. World Bank, Washington, DC. Available at: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29212 (date accessed 28/11/22). 10 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING Figure 3: Vehicle Operators’ Knowledge of TIP and Cases Observed Figure 4: Community Members’ Knowledge of TIP and Cases Observed The youngest vehicle operators and community members in Tanzania had less knowledge of TIP than older respondents. There were fewer age-related differences in Uganda. Knowledge of TIP was similar among male and female community members in Uganda whereas women knew less about TIP than men in Tanzania (Figure 5 and Figure 6). In Uganda, specific categories of community respondents were more likely than others to have seen many victims of TIP. These included sex workers, mobile money agents, clearing and forwarding agents, and businesspeople. Figure 5: Vehicle Operators who had Heard of TIP by Age 78% 75% 81% 84% 86% 81% 64% 55% 71% 65% 62% 66% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Tanzania Arusha Tunduma Uganda Busia Malaba Heard of TIP Seen Cases 65% 72% 59% 96% 98% 93% 20% 25% 14% 62% 62% 61% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Tanzania Arusha Tunduma Uganda Busia Malaba Heard of TIP Seen Cases 47% 79% 81% 76% 83% 83% 83% 87% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 18-24 years 25-34 years 35-49 years 50+ years Tanzania Uganda 11 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING Figure 6: Community Members who had Heard of TIP by Age and Gender 3.2.2 TIP Victims Over half (51%) of vehicle operators and 76% of community members in Uganda identified adolescent girls as the main victims of TIP. In Tanzania, the category most frequently mentioned by vehicle operators was adolescent boys (mentioned by 36% of respondents) whereas community members were more likely to mention adolescent girls (49%). Community respondents in both countries associated most cases of TIP with sex work and domestic servitude. The emphasis on adolescent boys in Tanzania, and especially in Tunduma where 57% of vehicle operators mentioned adolescent boys as the group most often observed as victims of trafficking, could be linked to a high demand for agricultural labourers. 3.2.3 TIP Trends Including Impact of COVID-19 In Tanzania, more than half of vehicle operators (54%) thought that the number of TIP victims had decreased in recent years. Only 15% of vehicle operators thought that the numbers were increasing and attributed this trend to rising unemployment in TIP victims’ home areas/better employment options in urban areas (64%) or, secondarily, to an increase in social problems within families (29%). In Uganda, in contrast, 58% of vehicle operators thought that TIP was increasing and, of these, 69% attributed this to rising unemployment. In Uganda, 59% of community members thought that the number of TIP victims had increased in recent years, whereas in Tanzania 47% of community members were unsure and only 14% thought TIP was increasing. Perspectives on whether COVID-19 had led to greater involvement of vehicle operators in TIP varied between the two research countries and by type of respondent. In Uganda, 46% of vehicle operators thought drivers, were less likely to be involved, while 42% thought that they were more likely to be involved. Just under half (48%) of community members in Uganda believed that COVID-19 had increased drivers’ involvement in TIP. In Tanzania, in contrast, a large proportion of vehicle operators did not know (40%); only 6% reported that drivers were more likely to be involved. More than half (55%) of community members in Tanzania were uncertain about the impact of COVID-19 on drivers’ involvement; 21% thought that they were less likely to be involved. 3.2.4 Vehicles Involved in TIP Over half (53%) of vehicle operators in Tanzania considered HGVs to be the vehicles most likely to be involved in TIP. In Uganda, 44% of vehicle operators put HGVs at the top of the list (Figure 7). 49% 64% 71% 90% 72% 61% 91% 96% 98% 97% 96% 95% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 18-24 years 25-34 years 35-49 years 50+ years Male Female Tanzania Uganda 12 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING Figure 7: Vehicle Operators’ Views on Vehicles Most Likely to be Involved in TIP 3.2.5 Locations Approached by Traffickers The locations where vehicle operators were most likely to be approached by traffickers differed by research site. In Tanzania, while border crossings were considered the most likely locations in Arusha (38% of respondents), bus stations were named in Tunduma (36% of respondents). In Uganda, urban areas were viewed as the most likely locations in Busia (36% of respondents), while truck stops were named in Malaba (31% of respondents). Among community members in Tanzania, trucks and bus stations were more often mentioned as places where victims were seen. In Uganda, 42% of community members mentioned locations involving transport (e.g. in taxis, buses, coaches, trucks, bus stations and fuel stations). 3.2.6 Extent to which Vehicle Operators Organised Over half of vehicle operators (55% and 52% in Tanzania and Uganda, respectively) thought that drivers who were involved in TIP worked independently; 24% and 38%, respectively, thought that they did so with the knowledge and support of the companies or individuals they worked for. In contrast, among community members who believed that vehicle operators were involved in TIP, more than half in both countries thought that they were organised and worked in groups or with others (59% in Tanzania; 62% in Uganda); just over a third (34%) of community members in both countries thought that drivers worked on their own (Figure 8). Figure 8: Vehicle Operator and Community Views on Whether Drivers Involved in TIP are Organised 21% 6% 16% 53% 1% 2% 1% 20% 2% 2% 44% 26% 5% 1% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% Bus Coach Minibus HGV Taxi/private car Taxi (m/cycle and tricycle) Other Tanzania Uganda 55% 34% 52% 34% 24% 59% 38% 62% 21% 7% 10% 2% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% Vehicle operators Community Vehicle operators Community Tanzania Uganda Work on own Organised/work in groups Don't know/no response 13 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING 3.2.7 Vehicle Operators Ever Approached by a Trafficker In Tanzania, 9% of vehicle operators disclosed that they had been asked to transport a victim of TIP. This rate was much higher in Uganda, where 37% of respondents reported that they had been approached by a trafficker. In both countries there were differences by vehicle type (Figure 9). For example, in Uganda 35% of HGV operators said that they had been approached by a trafficker compared to only 11% in Tanzania. More car taxi drivers had been approached by a trafficker in Uganda than Tanzania (44% versus 4%). Figure 9: Vehicle Operator and Community Views on Whether Drivers Involved in TIP are Organised Of those vehicle operators who had specified that they had been involved in TIP in the past 28% in Uganda and 11% in Tanzania indicated that they would do it again, despite stating that they understood the personal risks involved. 3.2.8 Understanding of Risk The majority of vehicle operators recognised that there was “a lot of risk” associated with being involved in TIP (78% in Tanzania; 73% in Uganda). However, 21% of bus drivers in Tanzania and 33% of minibus operators in Uganda felt there was little risk and a worrying percentage of respondents (10% in Tanzania; 6% in Uganda) were unsure of the risks (Figure 10 and Figure 11). Figure 10: Vehicle Operator Perception of Risk Associated with Involvement in TIP, Uganda 5% 30% 11% 8% 4% 2% 0% 0% 35% 17% 44% 28% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% Bus Coach HGV Minibus Taxi (car) Taxi (m/cycle/tricycle) Tanzania Uganda 0% 4% 0% 0% 5% 3% 0% 14% 33% 20% 23% 3% 100% 74% 50% 80% 66% 90% 0% 7% 17% 0% 5% 0% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Bus HGV Minibus Private car Taxi (car) Taxi (m/cycle/tricycle) No risk Little risk A lot of risk Not sure 14 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING Figure 11: Vehicle Operator Perception of Risk Associated with Involvement in TIP, Tanzania When asked about the sanctions for being caught facilitating TIP, more than half (54%) of respondents in Uganda mentioned prison, 38% mentioned fines and 19% thought they could lose their job. Interestingly, age had a bearing on Ugandan vehicle operators’ understanding that they could lose their job: no one in the youngest age group (i.e. 18-24 years) mentioned this, compared to 31% of the oldest respondents (i.e. age 50 plus). It is relevant that the youngest vehicle operators in Uganda were more likely to be self-employed than the oldest (40% versus 6%) and were therefore not answerable to an employer. In Tanzania, knowledge of the legal ramifications of being involved in TIP was high, with 85% of respondents confirming that prosecution and imprisonment were possible outcomes. As in Uganda, losing their job did not appear to be a major concern: only 9% of respondents mentioned this. 3.2.9 Understanding of Victim Identification Just under a third (32%) of vehicle operators in Tanzania did not know how to identify a victim of TIP. More respondents in Arusha than Tunduma (46% versus 19%) said that they were unsure. Just over a fifth (21%) of respondents in Uganda and a greater proportion of those in the age group 18-24 (37%) were unsure of how to identify a victim. Approximately a fifth of respondents (18% in Tanzania; 20% in Uganda) said that they had identified victims by speaking to them, reinforcing the finding that a high proportion of vehicle operators have come into contact with suspected TIP victims. 3.2.10 Vehicle Checks at Borders Vehicle checks at borders can help to combat TIP. In practice, however, the frequency with which vehicles are checked by border officials varies by vehicle type. In Tanzania, 81% of HGV drivers reported that their vehicles were always checked compared to 70% of coach operators, 21% of car taxi drivers, 20% of minibus operators, 6% of motorcycle and tricycle taxis riders, and 6% of bus operators. However, many bus, minibus and motorcycle/tricycle taxis (89%, 73% and 60% respectively) indicated that they did not know how frequently their vehicles were checked or did not respond to this question (Figure 12). 0% 3% 2% 4% 0% 21% 6% 5% 17% 19% 69% 78% 92% 79% 62% 10% 12% 2% 0% 19% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Bus HGV Minibus Taxi (car) Taxi (m/cycle/tricycle) No risk Little risk A lot of risk Not sure 15 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING Figure 12: Vehicle Operator Views on Frequency of Vehicle Checks by Border Officials, Tanzania While 80% of the vehicles travelling long distances in Tanzania were always checked, 85% of vehicles travelling short distances were never checked. The quality of vehicle checks is also important. Just over half of respondents in Tanzania (56%) and 45% in Uganda felt that vehicle checks were always thorough. In Uganda, 66% of HGV operators, 45% of car taxi drivers and 38% of motorcycle taxi ridersindicated that border officials always checked their vehicle at border posts (Figure 13). Among long-distance drivers, 65% reported that they were always checked at borders compared to 42% of short-distance drivers. These results confirm that many vehicles are not subjected to checks at borders and hence opportunities to intervene are being missed. Figure 13: Vehicle Operator Views on Frequency of Vehicle Checks by Border Officials, Uganda 3.2.11 Role of Border Officials in TIP A high proportion of respondents in Uganda (79% in Busia; 58% in Malaba) thought that border officials received bribes, in cash or kind, from traffickers. In Tanzania, fewer vehicle operators (38%) thought that border officials were bribed, although 15% believed that they were involved in other ways (e.g. turned a blind eye, had some form of agreement with traffickers or were traffickers themselves). When asked what measures would help border officials combat TIP, vehicle operators mentioned better training (37% in Tanzania; 24% in Uganda), better supervision (20% in Tanzania; 35% in Uganda), better pay (15% in Tanzania; 13% in Uganda) and recruiting more staff (13% in Tanzania; 13% in Uganda). 6% 20% 70% 21% 6% 81% 3% 7% 20% 33% 13% 15% 2% 0% 0% 4% 21% 0.50% 89% 73% 10% 42% 60% 4% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Bus Minibus Coach Taxi (car) Taxi (m/cycle/tricycle) HGV Always Sometimes Never Don't know/not specified 100% 67% 45% 38% 66% 0% 33% 42% 34% 30% 0% 0% 8% 7% 3% 0% 0% 5% 21% 1% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% Bus Minibus Taxi (car) Taxi (m/cycle/tricycle) HGV Always Sometimes Never Don't know / not specified 16 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING 3.2.12 Role of Traffic Police in TIP In Tanzania and Uganda, 42% and 26% of vehicle operators, respectively, agreed that traffic police did enough to help tackle TIP. However, over half of respondents (51%) in Tanzania and 84% in Uganda thought that traffic police were actively or passively involved in TIP in some way, whether by taking bribes, working in tandem with traffickers, turning a blind eye to traffickers’ activities, or by personally organising trafficking. Better supervision of traffic police was mentioned as an important intervention by 42% of respondents in Uganda and 18% in Tanzania. In Tanzania, more emphasis was placed on the need for better training (49% versus 27% in Uganda). 3.2.13 TIP Training for Vehicle Operators Few vehicle operators had been trained or given information on TIP (7% in Tanzania; 10% in Uganda). Employers were the main providers of training inputs, and in a small number of cases in Tanzania, CSOs had provided training. Interviews with driver training schools in both countries confirmed that TIP is not covered in the driver training curricula that they used. TIP has not been included in the East African Community Standardised Driver Training Curriculum either, which countries in the region plan to adopt. Transport associations reported that limited time was spent on the topic in their communications and interactions with members. Among vehicle operators who had received information or training, the impact was positive: 85% of those targeted in Tanzania and 87% in Uganda indicated that it had changed the way they thought about or responded to TIP. Among vehicle operators as a whole, 63% and 73% in Tanzania and Uganda, respectively, indicated that they would welcome information or training on TIP. Priority training topics were: how to identify victims; what vehicle operators can do to help combat TIP; victim services and how to refer cases; as well as information on the law on TIP. These results suggested a concern for victims and an interest in intervening in order to help them. 3.2.14 Perspectives of Driver Training Schools and Transport Associations Driver training schools and transport associations and unions interact with a wide range of modes of ground transport, including HGVs, passenger service vehicles, commercial vehicles, cars, motorcycles, plus clearing and forwarding agents. In Tanzania, one association had over 1,000 members (companies); another had 400 direct members (and over 350,000 members in the various associations that were members); while another had 150 members. In Uganda, the transport union had over 100,000 members. All organisations revealed that very little time is given to training about TIP or discussing the issue with members. In both countries, unions and transport associations are used by government to influence compliance with legislation. The absence of a focus on TIP in association and union activities may reflect the lack of directives coming from enforcement agencies. One respondent in Tanzania argued: “The association does not have the mandate to educate drivers on human trafficking. [We are] not responsible for taking any action in this case.” In Uganda, respondents from a driver training school pointed out that TIP is not in the East African Community (EAC) standardised curriculum for driver training and hence is not taught as a module in their school. When asked if they would be interested in adding TIP to the training curriculum for drivers or discussing TIP with members, the training school in Tanzania replied: “Not really, it seems like it is an issue for immigration and not an issue for driving schools … We currently do not make any attempt to inform students on this issue and don’t anticipate changing this approach.” However, transport associations in Tanzania seemed to be more amenable to engaging with the issue. They also highlighted areas in which they needed support to do this. These ranged from information to learning aids and support with updating websites. In Uganda, the representatives of driver training schools and the transport union were amenable to including TIP training in their activities (Box 1). The union in Uganda had actively sought help from partners to educate drivers about TIP. Representatives argued: “We have collective bargaining and do training and help them to understand their roles 17 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING and responsibilities. A key thing is for the members to know their dos and don’ts.” The union was also involved in the establishment of a support network for survivors of TIP. Box 1: Transport Association and Driver Training School Ideas on their Role in Combatting TIP Tanzania The representatives of transport associations were keen to get involved in the fight against TIP but noted that they needed support with resources and training. Activity Ideas “We would love to run some sort of media campaign.” “[We would be interested in] gathering evidence.” “[We] support amending legislation to strengthen prosecution.” Support Needed “Advice, mediation.” “Financial and/or technical assistance with our website.” “Knowledge of human trafficking/training (Training of Trainers).” “Equipment needed to deliver the knowledge – audio-visual kits for virtual training.” Uganda Representatives of the driver training schools and the transport union in Uganda were amenable to including a focus on TIP in their activities and shared their ideas of topics to include in a TIP training for vehicle operators. “Understanding the concept.” “Risk to people being trafficked.” “Unwittingly trafficking people in sealed containers.” “The risks that are involved in human trafficking.” “The part of security should be covered. How someone can report any incident of human trafficking.” “How drivers might suspect trafficking. How a driver can identify human trafficking.” 3.2.15 Survivor Experiences of TIP Twelve survivors of TIP were interviewed as part of the research. All were female24 and between 17 and 40 years old. All were recruited by family members, family friends or community members, which confirmed the extent to which TIP has become embedded in the everyday life of communities. Seven of the women were trafficked domestically and five (all Ugandan) were trafficked internationally (to Oman, Dubai and Kenya). Seven of the survivors were recruited for domestic work and five for sex work. None of the survivors were fully aware that they had been trafficked until they reached their destination. However, many began to experience various forms of deprivation while in transit (e.g. lack of food, lack of information, lack of sleep, verbal abuse). Longdistance buses featured prominently in the domestic trafficking cases, supported by motorcycle taxis that transferred the women to transit hubs. Buses and motorcycle taxis also featured prominently in the early stages of the journeys undertaken by the women who crossed borders. All survivors were either threatened with or suffered physical or sexual abuse, which included verbal threats, physical attacks or sexual assault (Box 2). All had been offered psychosocial support by the CSOs that played a role in their rescue or recovery. The survivors 24 Male survivors were either not available to interview at the time of the research or were not willing to participate. 18 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING made recommendations for policy makers, transport companies, vehicle operators and border officials (see Section 4.2). Box 2: Human Impact of TIP “Once I was in Dubai an unknown man grabbed me and took my passport…My salary was paid to ‘the office’…I was beaten and my legs were swollen.” (Survivor, Uganda) “The lady who was my employer started mistreating me. She denied me food and basic needs, verbally abused me and refused to pay my wages.” (Survivor, Tanzania) “When I started working [in Oman], I realised that the situation would not be good. The kids started to shout at me and mistreated me…They did not allow me to go back home after my contract ended…the madam started slapping and hitting me at some point when I reported mistreatment from the children.” (Survivor, Uganda) “The man who received me said that there was no work and he wanted to marry me if I was ready. He never gave me food. When I refused his attentions, he raped me and that was when I realised that I had been trafficked and there was no work. He used to rape me every day.” (Survivor, Tanzania) 19 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING 4. Recommendations “We need to start focusing on the transport sector. We need to bring them on board to become fighters of TIP rather than facilitating it.” Anti-trafficking CSO The research confirmed that the transport sectors in Tanzania and Uganda play a key role in TIP. They also provide an important entry point for identifying victims of TIP. 4.1 Detailed Recommendations The research findings have the following implications for policy and practice: • The low level of awareness of TIP among community members, especially those in Tanzania, increases their vulnerability to TIP. In Uganda, where awareness levels are higher, it is possible that communities do not fully appreciate the trauma experienced by victims and the long-lasting mental and physical impacts on them, or fully understand that promises of financial gain seldom materialise. In both countries public information campaigns are desperately needed. Targeted campaigns in particularly vulnerable communities, including border communities, and in places where TIP victims are seen, such as bus stations, restaurants, in buses and at border truck stops, would make sense. Organisations like North Star Alliance, with its blue box clinics at borders, could play a role in raising awareness among border populations; • If targeted for training on TIP, traditional and religious leaders could have an important role to play if they are able to intervene at an early stage, when families are first approached by a would-be trafficker. In addition, certain occupations in both countries seem to be more likely than others to come into contact with victims of TIP (e.g. restaurant workers, sex workers, money changers). Ways should be found to engage with and involve these groups as individuals who can signpost victim support services or otherwise engage with potential victims; • Investment in public information campaigns on buses would be a worthwhile intervention, especially if this encourages other passengers to enquire about children and young girls who are travelling long distances, and potentially intervene; • Vehicle operators in both countries lack information on the risks and repercussions of TIP and very few have been trained or even been given basic information on TIP. The research identified considerable support among vehicle operators for training and/or information. Considering the apparently significant behaviour change triggered by increased access to information about TIP, this would be a useful intervention; • The EAC standardised curriculum for drivers of large commercial vehicles (passenger and freight) in driver training schools currently does not include training on human trafficking, prevention or response. Discussions are needed at a regional level about whether a mandatory module should be included. A short module on human trafficking could be integrated into new licence acquisition/licence extension training and refresher training, and could reach thousands of drivers every year; • The Tanzanian and Ugandan governments could also consider making the need to address TIP a mandatory requirement of transport associations. Transport associations play a key role in self-regulating an industry where the resources for enforcement are lacking. They could build the awareness of their members on TIP. However, it is worth noting that transport associations themselves are generally quite poorly resourced; • Training for vehicle operators should focus on what the law says about human trafficking, victim identification, and the steps that drivers, conductors and turnboys can take if they encounter a trafficking situation. As part of this training, it will be important to place the safety and well-being of survivors at the centre of any response. A focus on behaviour change will be key, where participants are encouraged to 20 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING imagine their son/daughter/niece/nephew as a trafficked person. Vehicle operators can also be encouraged to think of the consequences to them and their family if they are arrested, jailed, fined or lose their job; • Different strategies may be needed to reach those working in the formal versus informal sectors, and those working for large employers versus those working for small businesses. Transport associations appear to be keen and ready to get involved in the anti-TIP effort. Working in partnership with these organisations, including those representing small enterprises and owner-operators, offers an opportunity. 25 However, transport associations tend to operate on a shoestring and are likely to need more resources. The associations also have a responsibility to put more pressure on government to act or at least recognise transport’s role in TIP. Another way to reach the informal transport sector would be through the ride-hailing app companies. Safe Boda in Uganda, for example, already imposes a level of accountability on all its riders (e.g. they must wear helmets and high visibility jackets) and their code of conduct could be extended to include TIP; • The lack of understanding among vehicle operators of victim support services may affect their willingness to intervene if they recognise cases. Anti-human trafficking CSOs require funding support so that they can raise their profile and publicise the services and facilities that they provide; • Border control officials and traffic police both need to become more visible and proactive in the fight against TIP. Training at all levels, including of senior managers, needs to be backed up by effective supervision and appropriate resourcing of roles. Ensuring that these enforcers systematically check the documentation of children who are travelling alone, and question those with whom they are travelling, will be critical in the fight against TIP. The very negative perception of regulatory officials in both countries among the general public is a concern. A public relations campaign that shares successes and achievements from a TIP perspective may help to increase the understanding and support of border officials and traffic police; • Certain vehicles (especially different types of taxis and minibuses) seem to avoid vehicle and passenger checks at borders and are therefore likely to be a favoured form of transport for traffickers. These vehicles need to be targeted for regular or spot checks by regulatory officials in order to challenge the idea that these are “safe” forms of transport for TIP. Because some of these vehicles do not routinely pass through formal check points, regulatory officials may require more resources to pursue traffickers on favoured nonofficial cross-border routes; • Transport companies have an important role to play in combatting TIP as part of their commitment to corporate social responsibility. In view of the widespread perception among community members and vehicle operators in both Uganda and Tanzania that HGV drivers are heavily involved in TIP, these companies need to take steps to provide training for their drivers and to monitor and supervise them better. They could also consider introducing anti-TIP charters and/or a code of conduct for drivers that focuses specifically on trafficking and appointing organisational anti-TIP champions. Sharing the positive steps that they are taking via social media could also encourage other organisations to follow suit; • Considering the apparent scale and embeddedness of TIP in both countries, there is considerable scope to strengthen the implementation of anti-TIP laws. These laws should act as a strong deterrent to TIP, but the fact that a sizeable group of would-be “repeat offenders” exists in both countries suggests that sanctions are not being applied as much as they could be. As a deterrent, drivers successfully prosecuted for involvement in TIP should lose their entitlement to drive passenger service vehicles, commercial trucks, etc. in addition to other any other punishment. Their employers should also face sanctions; 25 The Amalgamated Transport and General Workers’ Union (ATGWU) in Uganda indicates that it has a few thousand motorcycle taxi (i.e. boda boda) members. 21 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING • The scope for establishing a regional cross-border committee (involving Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania) to monitor TIP from a transport perspective should be investigated; • The voices of survivors that are highlighted in this research offer potent insight into the human cost of TIP. Case studies (these can be accessed in the fieldwork report at https://tinyurl.com/544mtxt5) will provide important material with which to engage with potential transport sector partners in a future intervention. Exploration of “sad memories” – what happened and how things could have been done differently – is a very useful methodology for beginning to engage with target groups for behaviour change activities; • The research findings indicate that there is a case for investing in anti-TIP interventions whenever an HVT road is built or a formal border post established. This should be an automatic consideration as part of the mainstreaming of a focus on social inclusion into major infrastructure projects. 4.2 Survivors’ Recommendations The survivors of TIP interviewed as part of the research made some practical recommendations for government, traffic police and border officials, transport companies and vehicle operators. Examples can be found in Table 2. It is important that these recommendations are heard and acted on. Table 2: Survivors’ Recommendations on Actions to Combat TIP Country Government Traffic Police and Border Officials Transport Sector Tanzania “Information on TIP should be made available to young people like me at school so that from a young age one is aware of the vice and knows the measures to be taken to prevent it or to seek help.” “There should be provision for training about human trafficking issues since the majority of people are unaware of these activities.” “The police need to check the identification documents of girls and people who travel and establish reasons for travel.” “…the police should be vigilant in major transport stations to check the people who arrive from different places and rescue the ones being trafficked.” “The police must check vehicles, especially buses from villages to towns. They should ask passengers questions.” “The traffic police and border officials should be given training on human trafficking.” “Drivers should be taught about human trafficking at driver training school.” “Drivers need to be more attentive and ensure they know the reasons for travel for girls who travel in buses.” “… drivers should be careful not to allow children or very young girls to travel by themselves.” “Transport companies should set strict rules and not allow drivers to engage in human trafficking activities.” “Transport companies should set rules which prohibit truckers to carry passengers in their trucks.” Uganda “The government needs to educate people about trafficking and do counselling because when you have knowledge, it is easier.” “The authorities could help by talking to and counselling “Some travellers hide children on the bus so the police on the roads should thoroughly check each vehicle instead of just peeping at the window. The police should ask, “Is this your mother?” The children are threatened to be killed so it becomes hard to talk.” “Drivers need to ensure that they engage each passenger.” “Transport companies need to find a way to regulate drivers to ensure they follow the law.” 22 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING parents since in most cases parents are involved.” “The government can put more checks at the borders, since people are mostly trafficked through the borders, not the airport.” “Everyone at a border must be checked, especially people crossing with children.” “The officials need to be strict on their jobs.” “Communities should also ask questions of drivers, especially if they see any suspicious activity on buses, or if they see children who are travelling by themselves.” “Other passengers should be concerned about children or very young girls travelling by themselves and should interrogate them.” 23 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING 5. Topics for Further Research The research raised a number of questions that warrant further exploration: • The small percentage of bus and coach vehicle operators involved in this research (10%, and mainly in Tanzania) implies that further research is needed to explore their knowledge of TIP, the role they play in it and their perspectives on the regulatory officials working to combat TIP. CSOs highlighted the important role played by long-distance buses in TIP – all survivors in Tanzania and in Uganda travelled by bus for at least part of the journey; • Private vehicles such as taxis seem to be involved in TIP on a large scale in Uganda in particular. Additional research focusing on private modes of transport could reveal more about how these actors are involved and how the cycle of TIP can be broken; • The research suggested that some transport businesses are directly involved in TIP. It is important to find out more about the types of businesses that are involved, whether small-scale, sole-owner or larger, more established businesses, and to determine the best ways to engage with them; • Further exploration of how to reach informal sector vehicle operators, as opposed to those who work for established companies, is needed. Some associations include informal sector vehicle operators (e.g. ATGWU in Uganda has a few thousand motorcycle taxi members) that could play an important role in an awareness-raising intervention. However, there may be other means to reach the informal sector; • A significant proportion of respondents in both countries believed that border officials and traffic police are actively involved in TIP in ways that extend beyond negligence. Our research team spoke with regulatory officers in Uganda, but were unable to do so in Tanzania. Further research in this area could help to identify solutions that will help to interrupt TIP; • The selection of research sites included three cross-border posts. It would be interesting to undertake a similar transport-focused study in inland research sites such as Karamoja in Uganda and Mbeya in Tanzania (many maids in Dar es Salaam come from this area). Such a study could help to shed more light on different aspects of the domestic trafficking trade in each country. 24 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING 6. Research Application and Uptake Our project aimed to generate new high-quality research, ensure uptake by policy makers, practitioners and development partners, and influence policy and practice. The anticipated main applications of the research are: • Greater policy attention to the role of the transport sector in combatting TIP; • Increased awareness within the transport industry of the transport provisions of anti-TIP legislation; • Strengthening of national TIP prevention strategies; • Expanding the reach of the research outcomes to other SSA countries that are facing similar TIP challenges. To ensure relevance, potential users of the research were placed at the centre of the research process. Formal opportunities for engagement, participation and knowledge exchange were created via a launch event, two research strategy consultation events, and a final dissemination event, all held virtually. These events were attended by government, transport sector and civil society stakeholders from Tanzania and Uganda, the SSA region and other countries. Other opportunities to disseminate the research approach, key findings and policy implications were offered by the Women and Transport Conference in 2020 and 2021 and an FCDO Infrastructure Advisers meeting in 2021. In-country meetings with representatives of CSOs, transport associations and unions, and driver training schools also provided an opportunity to share the research approach and findings and discuss potential entry points for intervention. A peer-reviewed journal article has been prepared and submitted to the Journal of Transport and Health. Although the pilot intervention phase of the project was cancelled due to budget cuts, the research team, in their own time, produced a draft training manual on TIP for vehicle operators in Uganda. The training content can easily be adapted for use in other countries. The manual has been shared with key stakeholders for their inputs and the final copy will be posted on the Transaid Knowledge Centre website and promoted as a resource that can be used on an open access basis. The draft training manual is also available to download from the HVT website: https://transport-links.com/download/human-trafficking-training-manual-for-vehicle-operatorsmanual-for-trainers/ 25 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING 7. Conclusion Human trafficking is facilitated by networks of people, including strategists, co-ordinators, logisticians, recruiters, transporters, hosts, other ‘middle-men’ and end-users. Our research focused on the part played by vehicle operators (drivers, conductors and turnboys) and regulatory officials (border control officials and traffic police) in TIP and focused specifically on HVT corridors. The TIP-related knowledge, attitudes and practices of the communities that live and work in close proximity to HVT corridors were also investigated. These are all topics on which there has been limited research to date. The research confirmed the importance of the transport sector and HVT corridors in facilitating TIP in Tanzania and Uganda. It highlighted: • Gaps in awareness of and exposure to TIP among the communities that border HVT corridors, especially in Tanzania; • The fact that a small but significant proportion of community members and vehicle operators had been approached by suspected traffickers; • The significance of transport vehicles and transport hubs as locations where TIP victims are seen; • The impression that vehicle operators involved in TIP were well organised and thought to be primarily motivated by financial gain; • The very low level of information or training provision on TIP for vehicle operators; • The very low level of confidence in the anti-TIP role of regulatory officials; • The existence of a cadre of possible “TIP repeat offenders” among vehicle operators; • The absence of a focus on TIP in the activities of transport associations and in driver training school curricula; • Different perspectives on the effect of COVID-19 on the number of victims and drivers’ willingness to be involved in TIP, with respondents in Uganda more likely to link the pandemic to an increase in trafficking activities. The research confirmed that the transport sector offers important entry points for raising the awareness of would-be traffickers and for identifying and supporting victims of TIP. Interviews with survivors of TIP provided insights into the human face of trafficking and the trauma experienced by those caught up in the trade. The voices of survivors indicate that there is a strong case for investing in anti-TIP interventions whenever an HVT road is built or a formal border post is established. 26 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING APPENDIX A: KEY RESEARCH QUESTIONS Table 3: Key Research Questions Research Objectives Key Research Questions • To investigate the role played by HVT corridors in human trafficking in Uganda and Tanzania • How are HVT corridors contributing to TIP in Uganda and Tanzania? • What forms of TIP are facilitated by HVT corridors? At what scale? • Is TIP increasing along HVT corridors? If so, why? • Who are the individuals or groups who are at high risk of being trafficked along HVT corridors? What are their experiences, and how can they be supported? • To explore some of the factors (primarily transport-related and regulatory) that are contributing to human trafficking along HVT corridors (roads) • What are the factors that motivate drivers to participate in TIP? • How do transport actors fit within the networks of human traffickers? • What is the existing anti-trafficking legislation, what does it say about transport, and to what extent is this enforced? What are the obstacles to enforcement? • What is the relationship between COVID-19 and TIP along HVT corridors? • To assess the level of awareness of human trafficking and its impacts among transport providers, the users of HVT corridors and the communities through which these routes pass • What do drivers, the communities located along HVT corridors, and border control and law enforcement officials located along HVT corridors know about TIP and to what extent do they participate in it? 27 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING APPENDIX B: SUMMARY OF RESULTS SUMMARY OF COMMUNITY RESULTS Topic/Question Tanzania Uganda Heard about human trafficking Heard a lot: 20% Heard a little: 45% Heard nothing: 34% Heard a lot: 49% Heard a little: 47% Heard nothing: 4% Community members who believe they have seen TIP victims Yes: 20% No: 72% Not sure/not specified: 8% Yes: 62% No: 37% Not sure/not specified: 1% Personally approached by trafficker Yes: 9% Women: 12%; Men: 4% Yes: 27% Women: 41%; Men: 14% Perceptions of main victims of TIP Adolescent girls: 49% Adult women: 25% Adolescent boys: 17% Adolescent girls: 76% Adult women: 17% Adolescent boys: 16% Main forms of exploitation Sex work Domestic work Sex work Domestic work Locations where victims seen Transport or transport hubs: 66% Transport or transport hubs: 42% Trends in volume of TIP Increasing: 14% Not increasing: 38% Don’t know: 47% Increasing: 59% Not increasing: 28% Don’t know: 12% Effect of COVID-19 on number of victims Increasing: 9% Decreasing: 11% Stayed the same: 11% Don’t know: 68% Increasing: 32% Decreasing: 57% Stayed the same: 4% Don’t know: 5% Who organises TIP Community members: 33% Criminal organisations: 33% Victim’s family: 22% Community members: 34% Organisations/businesses: 31% Victim’s family: 19% Are drivers using HVT roads involved in TIP Yes: 25% No: 30% Don’t know: 45% Yes: 62% No: 13% Don’t know: 22% Drivers most likely involved Truck drivers: 55% Bus drivers: 24% Coach drivers: 11% Truck drivers: 50% Motorcycle taxis: 33% Bus drivers: 26% 28 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING SUMMARY OF COMMUNITY RESULTS Topic/Question Tanzania Uganda Are drivers aware of what they are doing Yes: 79% No: 16% Don’t know: 4% Yes: 62% No: 29% Don’t know: 8% Are drivers well organised Yes: 73% Yes: 52% How drivers are organised Work on own: 34% Work in groups: 59% Work on own: 34% Work in groups: 59% Main driver motivation Favour for a friend: 84% Favour for a friend: 92% Effect of COVID-19 on drivers’ involvement in TIP Less likely to be involved: 21% More likely to be involved: 16% Don’t know: 55% Less likely to be involved: 39% More likely to be involved: 48% Don’t know: 9% Are border control officials involved in TIP Inadequate no. of respondents Yes: 69% Are traffic police involved in TIP Yes: 21% No: 46% Don’t know: 33% Yes: 50% No: 33% Don’t know: 14% Will training drivers in TIP make a difference Yes: 88% No: 6% Yes: 68% No: 16% Other ways transport companies can help combat TIP Increase driver salaries: 39% More sanctions for drivers: 21% Better supervision of drivers: 15% Better supervision of drivers: 37% More sanctions for drivers: 26% Increase driver salaries: 21% 29 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING SUMMARY OF VEHICLE OPERATOR RESULTS Topic/Question Tanzania Uganda Knows about human trafficking Yes: 78% No: 20% Yes: 84% No: 14% Cases of TIP seen Many/some: 28% Very few: 35% None: 16% Don’t know: 22% Many/some: 39% Very few: 25% None: 28% Don’t know: 7% Main victims of TIP Adolescent boys: 36% Adolescent girls: 25% All ages: 24% Adolescent girls: 51% Adult women: 19% All ages: 17% Vehicles most involved in TIP HGVs: 53% Buses: 21% Minibuses: 16% HGVs: 44% Taxis/private cars: 26% Buses: 30% Do drivers involved in TIP work on own (employers are unaware) Yes: 55% No: 24% Don’t know: 21% Yes: 52% No: 38% Don’t know: 10% Locations where drivers most likely to be approached by traffickers Bus station: 26% Border crossing: 25% Private dwelling: 15% Rural area: 15% Truck stop: 14% Urban areas: 30% Truck stop: 25% Border crossing: 17% Private dwelling: 17% Bus station: 14% Trends in volume of TIP Increasing: 15% Decreasing: 54% No change: 21% Don’t know: 11% Increasing: 58% Decreasing: 23% No change: 6% Don’t know: 12% Effect of COVID-19 on driver involvement in TIP Less likely to be involved: 19% More likely to be involved: 6% No effect: 34% Don’t know: 40% Less likely to be involved: 46% More likely to be involved: 42% No effect: 4% Don’t know: 8% Effect of COVID-19 on number of victims Increasing: 10% Decreasing: 25% Same: 16% Don’t know: 49% Increasing: 24% Decreasing: 59% Same: 6% Don’t know: 10% 30 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING SUMMARY OF VEHICLE OPERATOR RESULTS Topic/Question Tanzania Uganda What motivates drivers to transport victims Money: 90% Lack of knowledge: 9% Money: 87% Trying to be helpful: 12% Risks involved in transporting victims of TIP Lot of risk: 78% Little/no risk: 12% Lot of risk: 73% Little/no risk: 19% Main outcome if driver caught transporting victims Prosecution/prison: 85% Sacked: 9% Fined: 6% Prosecution/prison: 54% Fined: 38% Sacked: 19% Driver ever asked to transport victim of TIP Yes: 9% No: 90% Yes: 37% No: 63% (Of those asked to transport a victim of TIP) willingness to transport a victim in the future Yes: 11% Yes: 28% How often border control officials check vehicles Always: 46% Sometimes: 13% Never: 3% Don’t know: 16% Not specified: 22% Always: 60% Sometimes: 32% Never: 5% Don’t know: 0% Not specified: 3% How frequently passenger ID checked Always/frequently: 49% Sometimes: 28% Never: 19% Always/frequently: 46% Sometimes: 41% Never: 11% Involvement of border officials in TIP26 Take bribes: 38% Agreements with traffickers: 8% Arrange trafficking: 2% Turn blind eye: 5% Not involved: 19% Don’t know: 29% Take bribes: 68% Agreements with traffickers: 7% Arrange trafficking: 5% Turn blind eye: 16% Not involved: 9% What would help border officials combat TIP Better training: 37% Better supervision: 20% Increased pay: 15% More officers: 13% Better supervision: 35% Better training: 24% Better pay: 13% More officers: 13% Whether traffic police do enough to combat TIP Yes: 42% No: 50% Yes: 26% No: 61% 26 This question was worded so that respondents were able to mention more than one way in which they thought border officials were involved in TIP. Hence the percentages add up to more than 100. 31 FINAL REPORT: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT ON SOCIAL INCLUSION OF HIGH VOLUME TRANSPORT (HVT) CORRIDORS AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO IDENTIFYING AND PREVENTING HUMAN TRAFFICKING SUMMARY OF VEHICLE OPERATOR RESULTS Topic/Question Tanzania Uganda Involvement of traffic police in TIP Not involved: 27% Take bribes: 40% Have agreements: 5% Arrange trafficking: 2% Turn blind eye: 6% Not involved: 11% Take bribes: 61% Have agreements: 9% Arrange trafficking: 3% Turn blind eye: 10% Extent to which traffic police vehicle checks are thorough Always: 39% Sometimes: 44% Never: 16% Always: 25% Sometimes: 60% Never: 11% How often traffic police check passenger ID Always/frequently: 23% Sometimes: 32% Never: 42% Always/frequently: 26% Sometimes: 44% Never: 26% What would help traffic police do more to combat TIP Training: 49% Better pay: 19% Supervision: 18% More officers: 11% Supervision: 42% Training: 27% Better pay: 22% More officers: 9% Driver ever trained in TIP Yes: 7% No: 89% Yes: 10% No: 88% What can transport companies do to help drivers combat TIP27 Provide training: 34% Provide information: 29% Increase pay: 21% Improve supervision: 15% Provide information: 38% Provide training: 35% Improve supervision: 23% Increase pay: 16% Most important training topic for drivers TIP law: 36% How to identify victim: 29% Drivers’ role in combatting TIP: 24% How to identify victims: 39% Drivers’ role in combatting TIP: 27% TIP law: 20% 27 See footnote 26. The same applies here. DT Global Emerging Markets UK Ltd C/O Harlands Accountants Llp The Greenhouse, Amos Drive, Greencroft Industrial Park, Annfield Plain, Stanley, Co. Durham, England, DH9 7XN Website: https://dt-global.com